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Our research revealed that the bioprinting field has advanced rapidly in the past two decades and is close to creating tissue products with high commercial and therapeutic value. We found that the commercial adoption of bioprinted products will likely occur for in vitro tissue models first, within 5-10 years, for simple tissue grafts like skin and bone second, in 10- 15 years, followed by vascularized patches and functional organ regeneration implants third, in 20-25 years, and organ transplants last, 3-4 decades in the future.

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The Role of Type 2 Polyaxonal Amacrine Cells (PAC2) in mediating light adaptation Work conducted under advisor: Dr. David M. Berson Marjo Beltoja, Biophysics, Class of 2018 A thesis presented for the Honors in Biophysics Bachelors of Science Degree Department of Biophysics Brown University USA April, 2018 Contents 1 Abstract 4 2 Introduction 6 2.1 Anatomy of the Retina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2.2 Amacrine Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.3 The Intrinsically Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cell . . . . . . . . . 11 3 Methods 14 3.1 Animal Model Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 3.2 Retinal Tissue Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 3.3 Imaging via SBEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.4 Tracing Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 4 Results 17 4.1 The Polyaxonal Amacrine Cell (PAC 2) Circuitry . . . . . . . . . . . 17 5 Discussion 25 5.1 Summary of results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 5.2 Further directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 5.3 Limitations of Knossos Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 5.4 Advantages of Knossos Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 6 Acknowledgments 29 6.1 Appreciations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 6.2 Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2 List of Figures 2.1 General overview of the retina’s location in the eye. . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.2 The different layers constituting the retina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.3 A likely model of how PAC2s modulate RGCs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.4 The M1-M3 ipRGCs displayed in numerical order starting with the M1 on the far left. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 4.1 Electron micrograph of an output synapse from the PAC2. . . . . . . 18 4.2 Output synapses of the PAC 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 4.3 A.